Urdu Books World: History

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Tuesday, 3 September 2019

History September 03, 2019

The Oldest ancient Inca City."Machu Pichu" - Urdu Books World

Machu Picchu the Palace of the Emperor

The world's oldest ancient civilizations such as China and Egypt originated in the plains, while the Inca civilization originated in the South American Andes at an altitude of over 6,000 meters. It is cut off by the mountains, people speak different languages, have different living customs, until the emergence of Inca civilization.

At the beginning of the 13th century, the tribal alliance of Inca began to form. In 1438, the Incas made a decisive victory in the Battle of Changka. The ruler at this time was the ninth commander of the Inca history, PachaKuti. In Quechua, PachaKuti means reformers. The great reformers in the Inca history transformed Inca from a tribal alliance into a powerful and unified empire. His major political and religious reforms of the Inca Empire opened the door to the Inca Empire.

Inca in the early 16th century, with an area of more than 2 million square kilometers. Its territory includes today's Peru, Ecuador and Bolivia, with a population of more than 6 million.

At that time, people were rumored to be a mythical land. There were golden caves everywhere. The gold was so incredible that the king of gold in charge of this land changed every day with a new coat with golden sand. This legendary magical land is the Inca Empire.

During the heyday of the Inca Empire, rulers built luxury villas around Cusco (the Inca capital). The emperor can take his own entourage and deal with national events in the country houses far away from the capital, a bit like the Yuanmingyuan built by the emperors of the Qing Dynasty. PachaKuti’s private villas are hailed as the best of them. Some historians and archaeologists have judged that the ancient city of Machu Picchu was built during the PachaKuti period.

The ancient city of Machu Picchu, which is more than 2,300 meters above sea level, is located on the steep and narrow ridge of the Andes. It is heavily wrapped in the mountains and mountains. On the cliff side of the mountain, people can enjoy a vertical cliff with a 600-meter drop to the Urubamba River. From a distance, this ancient city seems to be able to slip from a narrow ridge to the abyss at any time. This mysterious castle hidden in the clouds is a true city of the sky.

Stone building inlaid on the cliff

Machu Picchu is about 120 kilometers away from the capital city of Cusco, and the city covers an area of about 90,000 square meters. Machu Picchu is small and can't even be called a city. There are 200 buildings, including temples, houses, warehouses and some public facilities, made of neatly cut stones.

About 1,000 people lived there, and the existing buildings reflect the strict hierarchy of Inca society. The religious areas, civilian areas, nobles and monks' residential areas are strictly divided.

The lower city is the peasant's house. The stone walls of the stone house are well preserved. Only the thatched roof has long disappeared. This is a typical Inca building. All buildings have no windows. Each family has only one room. The stone building materials and materials here. The urban area is much rougher, and the building is not as grand as the urban area. Therefore, the lower city area is also known as the “civilian area”.

Shangcheng District is a palace and temple designed for the nobility, the most striking of which is the Inca Palace and the Grand Tower. The stone walls of these two buildings are very beautiful, comparable to the Temple of the Sun and the Temple of the Virgin in Cusco, the capital of Inca.

The eastern part of the city is a tombed area divided into three layers. The first floor is the place where the gods of heaven live. The second layer represents the mother of the earth, and the other layer represents the underworld and the destination of life. The Incas believe that as long as the body does not die, the human soul will not be separated from the body, so the Inca nobles and priests are made into mummies after death. The Inca mummies are naturally formed in the tombs. They are exposed to the sun during the day and cold in the night. blow.

The choice of the ancient city ruins has been carefully considered: two residential areas like the two wings of the bird sandwich a square with a slightly concave terrain in the middle, the northeast is the center of secular life, the southwest is a place for public activities; a small square in the western religious area is set up. The shadow wall corresponds to a sacred mountain in the north, and the shadow of the winter solstice summer solstice passes through the window of the sun temple and must fall in the middle of the temple.

The stones used in the Machu Picchu buildings are the smoothest and flattened boulder. There are no bonds between the boulder, but they are not even inserted into a thin piece of paper. The secret of this process is unknown, like the craft of the ancient Egyptians building pyramids on the other side of the globe. People have made many speculations about this. Some people say that the Incas probably invented a chemical that would make the stone soft.

Thousands of huge granite stones come from a quarry 600 meters below the mountain. Even today, when large vehicles such as pulleys, cables, and aircraft can be used, it is extremely difficult to transport massive stones to the cliffs. No one knows how the Incas are done.

a nation that catches up with the sun

It has been said that the Incas who worship the sun are trying to get closer to the sun, so they chose to build a city in the towering Andes. There is a speculation that the inca people whose homes were destroyed have moved to the towering Machu Picchu, which is actually chasing the sun.

Like all Inca towns, the Temple of the Sun occupies the most important position. The Temple of the Sun is the largest and most spectacular building in the ancient city. It is also said to be the Inca's celestial observatory, and its circular appearance is indeed similar to the Chichen Itza Observatory in Mexico.

To the north of Machu Picchu, there is a smaller mountain with a temple of the moon on the back, which is opposite to the Temple of the Sun in the city, so it is also inferred that Machu Picchu is dedicated to the worship of the sun god.

There is also a legend about the sun god and the moon god: when the heavens and the earth are chaotic, the god of creation raises the sun and the moon from Lake Titicaca, the largest freshwater lake in South America. As a result, the moon has always boasted that it is bigger and brighter than the sun. The humiliated sun grabbed a handful of sand and sprinkled it on the face of the moon. This is the origin of the shadow on the moon we see today. From then on, the moon can no longer surpass the sun, the sun becomes the eternal boss, and has always protected the children and grandchildren of the Incas. In Machu Picchu, the Temple of the Sun and the Temple of the Moon are also from this story.

Why did the empire die out?

In 1532, the Inca Empire was in its heyday, with 6 million nationals. It mastered the advanced non-ferrous metal smelting and processing technology at that time, and was able to produce first-class cold weapons, as well as castles as dangerous as Machu Picchu. But after hundreds of Spanish colonists broke into the Inca Empire, for a short time, the empire died, and the Inca civilization of Machu Picchu lost.

In the history textbooks of American high schools, the reasons for the loss of the Inca Empire were elaborated: in 1531, Francisco Pizarro and 180 soldiers landed on the Pacific coast of South America. They brought muskets and horses, and they also brought disease in Europe. The residents of the Inca Empire had no resistance to this, and the Inca king also died in the plague. After the death of the king, his two sons provoked a civil war in order to compete for the throne. Atahualpa, one of the sons, defeated the other side with the help of the Spanish Francisco Pizarro. After that, Francisco Pizarro occupied the Inca Cuzco and used it as the capital. In 1535, Pizarro established a new capital in Lima and turned it into another colony in Spain. The smashing Inca empire died.

In 1532, the battle for the throne in the Inca Empire and the plague epidemic, the Spanish army broke the kingdom, and the last king of Inca, Atahualpa, became a prisoner of the Spanish. From the end of 1532 until 1533, Atahualpa had ruled the empire as a prisoner.

The King's bail was proposed by the Spaniard to fill up to 9 feet (about 2.7 meters) of gold in a 22-foot (about 6.6-meter) wide 17-foot (about 5 meters) cell. In order to save the king, gold was continuously transported along the road, looking far away, as if it were a continuous gold line.

Every Inca city was ravaged by the Spanish colonists, and the buildings and tombs inscribed with the Inca cultural symbols were spared. The Spanish invasion also brought terrible smallpox, measles, cholera, plague, etc. The ancient Inca people could not resist these diseases, and 95% of the Incas died.

The controversial discoverer, Hiram Bingham

In 1911, the history professor of Yale University, Hiram Bingham organized an expedition expedition to investigate the Andes in Peru. The terrain is extremely steep and the mountain trails are covered in clouds.

One night, the expedition after a long journey went to a small mountain hotel. At rest, Bingham inadvertently listened to the owner saying that there is an abandoned mysterious ancient city at a height of the ridge not far away, and some Ruins of the Incas. Bingham convinced the owner to take him to the ancient city to find out.

The group went through a lot of hardships and boarded the steep Machu Picchu ridge. An ancient Inca city hidden in the vines and grasses, this is a well-preserved Inca city. The buildings in the city are all Inca traditional style: polished regular shaped walls, all buildings are piled with huge granite stones. to make. The city that Bingham found was Machu Picchu. Machu Picchu means the ancient mountains in Inca, and the Inca's intention to build the city is unknown. People couldn't know his original name, so he named it with the name of a mountain nearby.

Bingham completed an archaeological report of the region here, and wrote his first book on the topic of “The Lost Inca City”, which is very popular. In fact, although it can't be found on the map, Machu Picchu is far from being a "lost" city in the true sense.

When Bingham arrived, he found a farmer living here, and some foreign visitors had written names on charcoal on the granite. In 2002, these unseen traces were discovered. It was discovered that Bingham had deliberately concealed these traces in order to become a recognized Machu Picchu discoverer. It is said that Bingham’s light is to erase the paintings on the granite. It took a few days.

In 1912, Bingham and Yale University signed an agreement with the Peruvian government to bring back excavated Machu Picchu ancient artifacts such as pottery, jewelry, stoneware and human bones to the United States for 18 months of scientific research, Bingham. Brought 5,000 pieces of ancient artifacts back to Yale University, these artifacts are still not returned. In the next few years, the ancient city was cleaned up on the one hand, and on the other hand it was looted. Numerous gold and silver treasures disappeared, and boxed porcelain, bio-bone and rock were transported out of Peru.

Hiram Bingham, an explorer who has been in the history of archaeology, has not only enjoyed the creators of the discoverers, but also caused the retreat of Peru's cultural relics for nearly a hundred years and has been controversial.

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Sunday, 18 August 2019

History August 18, 2019

Ancient Greek History

It is the tribes living in the Greek peninsula and the old state and civilization that they established because of the Greek «Helias».

As a farmer, the Hellenes or the ancient Greeks lived a very simple life at the beginning of their history, wearing a woolen shirt on their backs and a cowhide fur on their feet. The villagers used to sit in huts, which consisted of a single room, and slept together with pets. The nobles spent their lives in war, hunting, entertainment and competitions. On the other hand, those who lived by the sea used fishing boats that were not very durable.

Before being invaded by the warlike tribes of the Achaeans and the Boras, communities inhabited each other in small plains surrounded by mountains on the Greek Peninsula. Of these sites, Athens and Isparta, in particular, have a special place in the Ancient Greek civilization.

Ancient Greek people BC VI. century in the coast of Anatolia and the Mediterranean (Southern Italy, Sicily) established new cities. In spite of the great discrepancies and competition between the sites, the ancient Greek communities formed a union in terms of religion and language and thanks to this union, the sites repulsed the Persians and won two great victories against the Persians despite the crushing of the Isparta army in Termopil (Thermopylai). 490) and the Battle of Salamis (480 BC).

After these events, the ancient Greek civilization developed and especially Athens, the architects, scholars, philosophers, poets, musicians, theaters and sculptors eternalized this civilization.

Towards the end of the 5th century, Athens and Isparta wanted to dominate the whole of Greece, as the sites reconnected. That is why the Peloponnes War raged the whole country, and the plague broke the people of Athens. Thus, Athens came under pressure from Isparta and had to give up its own laws (404 BC).

The Persians who took advantage of these fights seized Anatolia but could not acquire the territory of Greece. But soon the King of Macedonia, Philippos II, would have no difficulty in conquering Greece (337 BC).

Alexander Empire

Alexander the Great's son, Alexander the Great, subjugated the rebelling sites (Thebai was razed to the ground) and began his conquests with ambition. Within a decade, he established a vast empire from the Mediterranean to the Indian coast. He settled on Darius III's throne, married his daughter, acquired new counselors, and adopted many Eastern customs. The weak unity of the Alexander Empire, however, could not withstand the competition among its successors. With the disintegration of the empire, the power of the real Greece came to an end; it was replaced by cities such as Antioch, Pergamum and Alexandria.

From Romans to Turks

The Greeks resisted the Celtic attacks for a while, but could not bear the power of the Romans and eventually succumbed to them (146 BC). Ancient Greek civilization was so rich that Rome not only looted this wealth and treasures of art, but also tried to imitate it: Greek literature, art and mythology became the most valid source for the Romans and eventually changed their civilization in a certain way. Politically, Old Greece has now become two provinces governed by proconsul. It was excluded from the great economic circulation of the Roman Empire, which gave them a summer residence.

Foreign invasions (Visigoth, Ostrogoth, Islav, Bulgarians) overturned this period of peace and led to the destruction and disintegration of Greece (from the third century to the Xth century).

Sites and Citizens

Establishment of sites in ancient Greece is a 2,500-year event, and the foundation of this civilization is the site (the police). Each site consisted of a small number (five to ten thousand) citizens; Citizens living on the site would have the right to participate in state administration by taking on various tasks (financiers, soldiers) in order and benefiting from the security of the laws.

The inhabitants were not politically equal: strangers and slaves had no rights. They were deemed as despicable and based on their elimination.

Citizens lived in the central part of the city; it was a fortified fortress during the war, and the center of political, intellectual, religious and economic life in the days of peace. Each site had its own gods and religions practiced only by its citizens.

Training also varied according to the sites. In Isparta, the children had a very strict military education. They could kill slaves (heilos) to prove their composure and insensitivity during out of teens. And they would remain soldiers ready for war for life.

The ancient Greek cities were very lively; the shopping places here were similar to the bazaars and markets seen in the current Near Eastern cities. All citizens, even slaves, gathered in a big square called agora in the middle of the city. The screams of the vegetable, wine and fish sellers met, cheered, talked, argued and shoved between the carpet and rug exhibits.

In Athens, citizens gathered in the popular parliament called Ekklesia, where they discussed the problems of their sites and made decisions about war or peace.

The open-air theater in which Sophocles, Aiskilos, Euripides 'tragedies or Aristophanes' comedies were played, was the only entertainment of the people.

Greek civilization BC Reached the highest level in the 5th century; III. century, Alexander's conquests spread all over. Despite the defeat of the army, Greece's influence extended to Rome and played a major role in the development of Roman civilization.

Highness and Misery

The beauty of the monumental buildings and the dazzling brilliance of literature should not mislead us. At that time, most Greeks lived in ruined huts in villages, simple houses in cities and primitive conditions. Sewer waters flowed through narrow streets without curb and light. All sides were full of flies, mosquitoes, mice. Anyone who came to Athens or Isparta from the outside would first encounter scum and heavy smells.

The Age of Pericles

During the period of Perikles (495-429 BC), Athens established its superiority over other Greek sites thanks to its social and cultural achievements. The ik Pericles Age bir has made a remarkable development in the field of history (Herodotus), philosophy (Socrates and Plato), theater (Aiskilos [Aiskhylos], Sophocles, Euripides) and in particular art (the works of the sculptor Pheidias in the Acropolis).

Isparta

Isparta, the great rival of Athens, was ruled by an aristocratic regime. His people consisted of three classes: heilos (slaves taken prisoner in war and cultivating the land), perioikos (Akas subjugated to Isparta) and equals (class of warriors, all considered citizens). Starting from the age of seven, the equals, who had a hard and strict education, made Isparta the most powerful state of Greece until the Med Wars.

Religion on site

Religion was part of life on the estate. All the people of the site participated in religious ceremonies directed by high officials. The rituals were bound by strict rules and required sincere participation: the Greeks believed that the gods who were jealous and feisty would not protect themselves if they did not agree sincerely.

Aristophanes

Aristophanes (445-386 BC) wrote forty comedies; The main ones are: Clouds, Wasps, Birds, Lysistrata, Plutos and Women's Assembly. Aristophanes, with a masterful style full of inventions, attacks war, opponents, money and makes the courts of Athens ridiculous. The naughty words he didn't hesitate to use would make everyone, ordinary people as well as elites laugh.

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Friday, 24 May 2019

History May 24, 2019

The Middle Ages were really dark - Urdu Books World

The Italian scientist Francisco Petrarcha put the term dark centuries or dark ages as a critique of late Latin literature, and the English historian Gibbon described these ages as a thousand years of barbarism and domination of religiosity. Historians later expanded the term to include the absence of historical writings, the lack of material civilization and the degeneration in various fields.

Dark Ages is a term used to refer to the Middle Ages in Europe, dating from about 400 to 1400, where the knowledge of the Greeks and Romans that flourished in Europe remained only limited among the churches, monasteries and plaques. The dark ages were characterized by the spread of ignorance and religious extremism and the growing role of the Church In the various spheres of life and also in the spread of bitter wars between European and German peoples.

Many literary magazines in France are now publishing important medieval works, in which they try to answer the question: Were the Middle Ages really dark?

The French critic Hubert Artus pointed out that the Middle Ages no longer only fascinates distinguished historians such as Jacques Lugoff, George Dubai, but also novelists. This may be due to their miraculous worlds, to the strangeness of life in them, to their mysterious, magical rituals.

Circle whispers

Caroline Martinez's novel, "The Circle of the Homs," attracted the admiration of new generations of imagination and revealed exotic worlds in the lives of medieval contemporaries.

The story tells the story of a girl named Esklarmund, from the twelfth century, who chooses to live in the convent, refusing to marry a man she does not like. Caroline Martís wrote her novel in simple, poetic language.

Closed and comprehensive system

In his novel "Woman in front of the mirror," Eric-Emmanuel Schmitt also goes back to the Middle Ages to tell the story of three women living in different epochs: the Middle Ages, the Renaissance, and the beginning of the 20th century. Which lived in the Middle Ages called I. Like Caroline Martinez's heroine, she refuses to marry a man her family wants to impose on her, fleeing the family home.

"I know the history of the Middle Ages well. She studied philosophy and deepened her knowledge of various aspects related to the philosophy of the Middle Ages. So I can say that I am familiar with the cultural world that was characterized by this period of history, where the great philosophers of Europe, and the Arab world have specialized in the revival of Greek philosophy, especially in Aristotle, Plato, I read the traces of Thomas Aquinas and Ibn Rushd. I also read to the Christian poets who were famous for their tendency to asceticism. "

Speaking of the Middle Ages, Schmidt says, "Based on the first view, this era seems as if it is a closed, comprehensive system, one by one. But she was very rich.

It is the era of spirituality. Religion was the only means men and women used to understand themselves. This contrasts with other historical periods. When I put the events of my novel at the end of the Middle Ages and at the beginning of the Renaissance, I have chosen the period in which the ancient world remains steadfast in the face of the next new. "

Philosophical and literary works

In his novel "The Big Heart," French writer Jean-Christophe Rouffin is interested in places, not in historical epochs such as Eric-Emmanuel Schmidt. The hero of his novel, Jack Core, is a real character. He was an adviser to King Charles VII. He helped him end the 100-year war. But Reuven allowed himself as a novelist to manipulate historical facts to make Jack Lockour the son of a fur trader traveling between East and West, visiting Damascus and Beirut, and living closely with the events of the Crusades.

The Middle Ages were characterized by very important philosophical, literary and poetic works. In philosophy there were Thomas Aquinas, Ibn Rushd, Al-Farabi, Ibn Tufail, Musa ibn Maimon, and Ibn Majah.

In sociology there was Ibn Khaldun. During this period, Arab civilization was known for its glory before the Mongols burnt Baghdad and its great libraries.

French historian Michel Pastoro says that the Middle Ages lasted a thousand years. And thus can not be dominated throughout this period by one culture, one civilization. For him, there are three medieval eras: the first period extends from late antiquity to nearly a thousand years. Then comes the central epoch that includes the eleventh, twelfth and thirteenth centuries. In the end, there is the era that ends between the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries.

Pastoro believes that those who call the Middle Ages "dark" are wrong in their estimation of this important epoch in world history. In every era, disasters, wars and famines occur. From this very beginning, humanity still suffers from all this. The twentieth century, when Western civilization reached its peak, witnessed two world wars, in which humanity did not live.

Pastoro argues that the worst century for Europe is the seventeenth century, which French historians wrongly called the "glorious century" or the "great century" where the philosophy of lights emerged that paved the way for the French revolution and other intellectual and social revolutions, ending the hegemony of the church over political and spiritual life . The century, however, has seen natural disasters whose victims numbered thousands. And the famine has reaped a lot of people, and the tragedies follow one after the other do not keep and do not warn.

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Tuesday, 21 May 2019

History May 21, 2019

Did the legendary paradise "Atlantis" actually exist?

In this regard, there was one case that could attract the attention of recent researchers. In June, a French underwater exploration team discovered the city's remains by chance in the Caribbean. The ruins were a city with crossroads woven roads and various buildings, and researchers are cautiously suggesting that it is the legendary Atlantis.

According to the French media reports, this sub-sea city is not only huge in size but also very organized in its structure, giving it the appearance of primitive ruins. Particularly, some of the buildings are said to have a pyramid shape. Researchers from around the world who have been trying to prove the existence of Atlantis are paying attention to this point and funding for in-depth exploration.

Unfortunately, we do not disclose the exact location of the site for reasons of preventing damage to the site for further research. In fact, this is not the first such discovery. In 1965, an ancient castle settled in the water near the volcanic island Terra in the southern part of the Aegean Sea was found, and in 2004, the remains of Atlantis, similar to Plato's mausoleum in southern Spain,

There is also some circumstantial evidence to support the existence of Atlantis. Columbus left Atlanta in the early 1940s when he discovered the new continent of America, and German astronomer Herbegger advocated the hypothesis that the moon was attracted to Earth's manpower and became the satellite of the Earth at the present time. A massive natural disaster Has published an exciting theory that it is about 12,000 years ago, similar to the time of Atlantis's sinking.

The American prophet Casey also contemplated that Atlantis was partially collapsed and eventually disappeared by three broad disasters, claiming that the last episode occurred around 10,000 BC. He also predicted that Atlantis would rise from the Atlantic Ocean in 1968, and that year, a unique stone wall was discovered that was actually built by man in the Great Western Bahamas that year.

Scientific truth is not revealed, but the mental atmosphere of Atlantis is believed to exist. Of course, this set of circumstances does not prove the existence of Atlantis. But at least it is true that it can not be regarded as a mere myth or legend.

There is no Atlantis?

Despite the interest and research of many people, the mystery of Atlantis is not easily solved. Since we have not found any clear evidence, everything is just a home and hypothesis for now. Exploration of seafloor topography began in the 1950s, but there were no large continents in the Atlantic Ocean or large scale crustal movements.

There is also no clear evidence that Cretan and Cuba were Atlantis. The same is true of Atlanteans' existence ages. When the Atlas presided over the country from about 23,500 BC to 9,600 BC, this was the time when the early humans came to power in history.

Many researchers point out that there was a bit of a hint that such a high level of urban civilization existed at this time, like Atlantis. This further means that many of the parts described in Plato's dialogue can be errors.

It is correct to think that the structures built in Atlantis or the fortunate weapons operated by the Atlantis can hardly be considered against the technology of the time. The first iron culture of mankind was also able to bloom as a flower in the third millennium BCE. Some have denied Atlantis itself at all.

First of all, it is at the core of the evidence that the story of Atlantis can not be found in any literature other than Plato's dialogue. It is not hard to find a record of it if it is a civilized world with a long history of 13,900 years. Therefore, Atlantis also views Plato as an imaginary continent artificially drawn to explain his idealistic state view.

It's just that they used the imaginary continent as a stage to wake up people's awareness of corruption and corruption. Some researchers argue that modern humanists intentionally re-introduced Atlantis, which no one thought seriously in ancient times, and that this is also analogous to what Plato thought.

In 1975, the Indiana University of the United States held an international symposium on "Atlantis is a fact or a fiction". The conclusion of the symposium at the time of the gathering of researchers from all over the world was that "Atlantis is a myth but not a reality".

If the myth of today becomes the reality of the future, the story about the existence of Atlantis returns to its origin. But one thing is clear: the human aspiration for the mystery of Atlantis continues to be 'ongoing'. Atlantis was the driving force behind the exploration of the Atlantic Ocean in the past, and furthermore the discovery of the American continent.

The explorers did not mind traveling hundreds of thousands of miles to find the trace of Atlantis somewhere, and as a result, changed the history of mankind. It is the same today. Many researchers around the world are constantly searching for life in search of Atlantis. There are also a variety of fields such as archaeologists, oceanologists, astronomers, geologists, and anthropologists. They say it all together.

"Today's mythology does not mean that it will remain a myth in the future." Just as Troy's existence has changed from 'myth' to 'history' through the excavation of the ruins, maybe Atlantis could become reality not fiction anytime soon. Of course, until that day, Atlantis will continue to stay in our dreams of earthly paradise.

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History May 21, 2019

History of Europe in the Middle Ages - Urdu Books World

The medieval phase dates back to the 5th century AD until the eleventh century AD. Before this historical period, Europe was part of the Roman Empire. Medieval historians launched the Dark Ages, where the level of education and culture was very degenerate. On the myths, fiction and myths, the Middle Ages began the fall of the Great Roman Empire. There are no definite dates for the end of the Roman Empire, which was the largest force on earth, and its territory expanded from east to far west.

Invasions of barbarians and tribes:

The first tribes to dare the Roman Empire after the weakness and spread of corruption were the Germanic tribes, who were called "barbarians" and occupied the northern parts. The goths dominated Spain and Italy, and Saxons over Britain, the Franciscans over France and divided the empire lands into large fiefdoms Of the land was called loss.

Feudal Age:

The European empire was divided into three strata of the clergy, the land of the landowners, and finally the peasants' class. Workers, landlords exercised the worst forms of oppression and domination over peasants and workers, until they became their slaves, helping to tear Europe into warring areas.

The stage of church control:

The era of feudalism continued for long periods, but the importance of the church began to grow with the barbaric evangelization. The power of the Church grew, especially as the Europeans became not loyal to one ruler. The evils of the feudal system began to increase. Religion from pastors, and others active in the spread of Christianity throughout Europe, the church owned lands and collected taxes, and established religious schools, hospitals and monasteries. The Franciscans, who took control of France, reunited Europe once again. One of their most famous kings was Charlemagne, who protected the church from its enemies. He founded a school in his palace and brought teachers from all over Europe. They built schools and translated ancient manuscripts. Among the sons of Charlemagne. Europe has returned to the age of feudalism, and the cavalry of feudalism has emerged to protect their interests and collect their money. With the evils of the feudal system growing more and more, people have resorted to the Church to rid them of the injustice of the landowners. , Having religious and worldly authority, Europe lived under the religious laws imposed by the Church and priests exercised authority over the people. However, the spread of corruption in churches and monasteries paved the way for instances of rebellion against the Pope's teachings, There were some reformers who called for the reform of the Catholic Church, translations of the Gospel appeared in local languages, people became familiar with the origin of the Christian religion, and Urupa lived at this stage in long religious wars that led to the renaissance of Europe, , And their work became only religious.

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Sunday, 19 May 2019

History May 19, 2019

Armenia during Tigran the Great

Armenia during Tigran the Great:

The Kingdom of Tigran the Great (in 69 BC)

The years of enthronement of the followers of Artashes I, Artavazd A (160-115 BC) and Tiran-Tigran I (115-95 AD), were relatively calm. were not rich in external events and wars. Perhaps that is why the information about their management period is very scarce.

According to the Roman historian Justinus, as a result of the defeat of Armenia in the battle against Partizan, Tigran the throne son of Tigran was taken hostage to the king of Parthians Mihrdat B. Arshakuni.

C After his father's death in 95 AD, Tigran B. yielded Parthian to some of the southeastern lands of the Greater Armenia ("the 70 valleys"), freed from hostage and inherited his native throne.

The talented diplomat, statesman and military figure Tigran B, 40 years of imprisonment (95-55 BC), marked the unprecedented military, political, economic and cultural rise of Armenia by raising the international role and authority of the Armenian state.

C 94th Tigran the Great reunited Tsopk with which Mir Hayk complete. In order to withstand the advancement of the Roman and patriotic powers, and to neutralize their threats against Armenia, Tigran the Great 94th has signed a military-political alliance with Pontos and the King of Small Hayk Mihrdat Z. To reinforce the alliance, Tigran married Mihrdat's daughter Cleopatra.

C 93rd Armenian-Pontian troops captured Cappadocia. After a long battle against the Roman intervention, it remained under the control of Mihrdat Z.

Afterwards, Tigran the Great captured Iberia and Aghvank, secured the rear in the north and prepared for the war against Parity.

Rome, the common enemy of the East. 89-84 CE was involved in the first Mihrdat war, could not hinder the expansion of Armenia.

C 87-85 In the war against Parthians, Tigran the Great first liberated the Mesopotamian and Mesopotamian worlds, as well as the "70 valleys", then outlawed Atrpatakan and Northern Mesopotamia from Nigde, Osrodenne (Edessa) and Adybeni, later known as the Greater Armenia ally kingdoms, and the Arshakuni patriots were forced to accept the kingship of the Armenian king and give him the title of "King of the King".

The struggle of the Armenian people against Rome In the second half of the first century.

Tigran the Great took him out of the international arena for some time after winning the main opponent of Parthian and signing a peace treaty with him.

Then Tigran drew attention to the south.

He 84-83 Cobain, Cilicia, Syria (Syria), Phenicia (Lebanon), Judea and Nabatian.

With the advent of Syria, Tigran eliminated the once powerful kingdom of Seleucids. C 83 Tigran the Great sat on their throne in Antioch, the capital of Antioch. Thus, a powerful and spacious Armenian empire was created.

They spoke in more than 15 languages in the domination of Tigran.

To control the newly established Armenian power, Tigran the Great set up a number of positions and coronations, governed by his close relatives and loyal patriots.

Tigran the Great has been involved in large-scale construction works, especially in urban development and road construction.

Ruins of the capital city of Tigranakert:

He built and built the new capital of Tigranakert, the new capital of his new kingdom, built the Artashat-Tigranakert "king's avenue" which united two Armenian capitals, founded other cities in Tigranakert and Tigranavan in different regions of Armenia, sponsored Hellenistic culture and economy, especially craft and trade. and with a Greek inscription, he dropped coins.

In order to rapidly settle the newly established cities, Tigran rebuilt a large number of craftsmen and merchants from the conquered lands.

Peaceful building activity of Tigran the Great broke between Rome and Pontus. 74th year flared during the Third War of Mihdidat.

By announcing Armenia its most dangerous and powerful enemy in the East, Rome instigated a series of powerful riots within the Armenian Empire and constrained the military assistance of Tigran Mets to Mihrdat Z.

His two sons rebelled against the Armenian king, but were defeated and killed.

Thus, Tigran the Great restored not only the power and integrity of his power, but also handed Pontus the throne to Mihrdat again.

The Pope of Rome replaced Pope, who defeated Moghulet Evgothi in the East.

Meanwhile, Rome and the Parthian king of Horde were able to organize a new riot in the back of Tigran the Great, the head of which was the honored Armenian prince and the viceroy of Tsopk, Tigran Jr. The latter 67th He was fired, fled to Parthia and became the Horde's Groom.

C 66th Tigran Jr. entered into Armenia with a paratrooper, trying to capture the capital of Artashat and proclaim the King of Armenia. However, he again suffered a heavy defeat, and this time he sheltered Pompeius. The latter In 66 AD, he defeated Mihrdat Z, coordinating Cappadocia, Pontus and Small Hay, followed by Tigran Jr., invaded Greater Armenia.

Tigran the Great, taking into account the fact that two powerful powers are threatened by Rome and Parthian, 66th In Artashat, Pompeius signed a peace treaty, though he refused from most of the conquered countries, paid a huge warrant, but preserved the integrity and independence of the Greater Armenia.

Tigran the Great also retained the title of "King of the King". By proclaiming Armenia as a "allied and friendly" state under the Artashat Treaty, Rome soon made its main goal in the East as the achievement of Parity.

Tigran the Great and his successors then pursued a policy of rapprochement and military-political cooperation with the neighboring Parthian, to counterbalance the Roman Eastern policy and preserve the state independence of Greater Armenia. 64th year signed by the Armenian-Parthian Covenant.

The last decade of Tigran the Great's enthronement was peaceful.

Urdu Books 0

History May 19, 2019

Maya Civilization

While Europe was going through one of the most difficult periods in the early Middle Ages, an unknown civilization reached its peak in an unknown continent until then. This civilization for Europeans will be unknown for a longer period of time. The people who developed this civilization, settled the areas of today's Guatemala, Honduras and southern Mexico.

The Maya people appear in the Central American region around the twenty-first century BC, where they will establish a large number of settlements whose inhabitants will deal mainly with farming. Around the ceremonial centers of the Maya, they established the right city centers. Civilization began to weaken in the IX century of our era due to unclear circumstances. Some centers of Maya continued their livelihood until the arrival of Spanish conquistadors in the 16th century.

Interesting experiences from Maya

In the old Maya, an elongated head, a prickly forehead, a large (hinged) nose and the eyes of the eyes were ideal for beauty. To do this, the Mayans often tightened their heads firmly with their cloths and put their nails around their forehead to become gaps.

The Mayans knew about toothed teeth. Their priests and nobility often built semi-precious stones in them.

Of all the ancient American nations, only the Maya had their own letter composed of dots, paws, and facial and hand images. Their strange letter can be found on the walls of temples and monuments, ceramic items, as well as their books that were left to us preserved. Only three books written in the Maya language have been preserved.

The Mayans knew they counted and counted. They also knew all the important arithmetic-related items a thousand years earlier than those knowledge came to Europe from the East. In arithmetic, they knew all the numbers, including zero.

With knowledge of mathematics they developed astronomy, and they had a very precise calendar. They knew exactly how long it took a year.

Observation of the sky accurately predicted the movement of the Sun, Moon and Venus. To what extent their knowledge of astronomy was precise, one can best see one phenomenon that can be seen every year in the Chichen Ici, the well-preserved city of Maya in Mexico. Namely, on the staircase of the Temple of the god Kukulkan (Pernate Snake), at the time of spring and autumn, about 15 hours, by the shadow and the light, a "snake" appears, which slowly descends down the stairs about 25 meters long. This scene takes about 10 minutes.

These temples of Maya also served to sacrifice the sacrifices, in order to endorse the many gods. The Maya were offered to them by human sacrifices, young girls who were living thrown into the well, or they would take their hearts out of living people. In order to gain the good will of the gods, they worshiped mutilation and self-sacrifice (for example, breaking their own language with a wooden stick). These rituals of sacrifice can best be seen on the frescoes of the temples themselves.

For some reason, the Maya had a special admiration for the Jaguars and often portrayed them on their sculptures and reliefs. They dressed his skin, and on the head they put "helmets" in the form of a jaguar head. By joining the snake in the later period, the Maya created the cult of these two animals.

Although they knew about the wheel, Maya did not use it as other ancient nations of America. The proof that they knew about him are numerous children's toys that are preserved, and on which there are wheels. Perhaps the answer to this question is poorly developed cattle breeding and the absence of powerful animals for traction.

They built their cities with the magnificent pyramids of the Maya only with the help of patience, muscles and primitive tools made of stone. They did not know about the tools and weapons from the metal.